Feasibility Report on Opening an Amusement Park

subcultural thoery essays

subcultural thoery essays Examine the similarities and differences between subcultural theory and strain theory as explanations for deviant behaviour? Sociologists have tried to explain the reasons for deviant behaviour by using subcultural theories and strain theory. Subcultural theories are based upon the distinctive norms and values shared by a group within society and how these can lead to deviant behaviour. Strain theory is based on the contrast between an individuals aspirations and expectations with what they can realistically achieve. These theories have been adapted by sociologists to create a clearer view of crime and deviance within society. Functionalists such as Durkheim, describe crime and deviance as an integral part of all healthy societies. His theory explained that a limited amount of crime is necessary and beneficial to society and that it performed a crucial function for society, although too much crime would be dysfunctional. Robert Merton used Durkheims concept of anomie, as he provided social reason for crime and deviance. But Merton thought it was too vague in its original form. It did not offer any real explanation as to why certain people are more likely to commit crimes than others and concentrated on the relationship between deviance and order in society. Merton focused on the obsession of the American Dream where anyone can achieve the best and success is shown in wealth. He explained that materialism in America was taken to such an extreme within the value consensus that it caused a state of anomie. He found a strain between what people want, (goal) and how they attain their goal, (means). This ex planation is structural, as Merton locates the cause of deviance in the nature of American society, rather than any defects from the individual. Deviance occurs when individuals reject the goal of success or legitimate means of reaching that goal. Merton identified five possible responses ...

Talk about my quality and school life time Personal Statement

Talk about my quality and school life time - Personal Statement Example Throughout my educational background I have worked hard to prove my capability. Mathematics had always been a strong subject of mine. During my middle school in Taiwan, I have been honored with an award of Mathematics excellence in the 7th grade. Later on while completing my high school in America I was presented the Academic Awards Of excellence in Mathematics in the freshman year. My hard work has always proved to be fruitful and the encouragement in the form of these awards had always motivated me to thrive and flourish in the career I had always desired for. Moreover, I have been actively taking part in Mahjong competitions since I was sixteen. Mahjong is game of strategy, skill and calculation that involve a certain level of luck. As I have played many Mahjong games, I have gained experience in tackling complicated problems with ease and fortunately have always managed to rank between the first five positions. Mahjong has sharpened my skill to think logically and since my childhood it had always been my area of expertise. Being a practical person I believe in what I see and observe around me. This trait in my personality has led me to analyze the never-ending use of computers and my increasing awareness of their use in every occupation and profession have led me to opt for a career that involves the extensive application of computers. My fascination with computers have grown to be more profound and passionate since I had the fortunate chance of being exposed to this most modern equipment that science has put into the hands of the manki nd. Mathematics and computer science had always been interlinked as I came to realize that different concepts of mathematics such as vectors, logarithms and algebra are extensively used in computing. With the fine blend of computing and mathematics, I believe I can discover the unfamiliar for the betterment of the mankind. As Gail Devers said â€Å"Keep your dreams alive. Understand to achieve anything

Managment case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Managment case - Essay Example Also, by developing a vertical hierarchy where the plant manager is the ultimate authority with multiple layers of management reporting directly to this role, legitimate power through authority is developed effectively. Joined with more visibility among influential players in the business as well as the production staff, this provides more legitimacy and shows off expertise as a means to gain power and control. Doing this will also develop more name recognition for the plant manager among all different layers of authority and subordinate work teams as a means to increase power. Even though the plant management team seems to be on-board with all of the changes being discussed in private management meetings, they are not accomplishing the goals that have been laid out related to productivity and quality standards. The manager needs to develop retribution tactics against the plant management team, from Engineering through to Quality Control in order to ensure that new controls are being developed to meet standards. This can be done either through direct coercion or through intimidation. The plant manager is new in this role and only 33 years of age, therefore there are many opportunities for other seasoned managers to resist change, a common situation in this type of industrial environment. By transforming requests into direct threats, such as I will punish you if you do not meet my expectations, the plant manager sets up a punishment system or can also reward based on meeting productivity and quality targets. Retribution provides quick and immediate results by indicating that there will be consequences if the goals are not achieved, something that must be done at River Woods. However, in relation to the absentee problem, the plant manager can also rely on the close interpersonal relationships between the management team and the production workers

Laboratory Report on Properties of Carboxylic acids

Laboratory Report on Properties of Carboxylic acids Ramona Mae S. Rajaratnam Abstract: This report presents the different properties of carboxylic acids including solubility, acidity of some carboxylic acids, difference in strength of carboxylic acids compared to phenols, action of oxidizing agent on the carboxylic group and the neutralization equivalent of carboxylic acids. Carboxylic acids like acetic acid, butyric acid, oleic acid, succinic acid, stearic acid and benzoic acid were each mixed with water to test their solubility. The same acids were each mixed with 10% sodium bicarbonate to test their acid strength. The typical pKa values of carboxylic acids, phenols, HCO3 and CO32- were used to compare the acid strength of carboxylic acids with phenols and to judge whether both Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 can be used to successfully separate phenols from carboxylic acids. Carboxylic acids like acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, succinic acid and oxalic acid were each mixed with 0.5% KMnO4 to look at the action of KMnO4, an oxidizing agent, on the carboxylic acid group. Thi s report also focuses on the finding the neutralization equivalent to determine the unknown molar mass of a carboxylic acid. An accurately weighed sample of an unknown carboxylic acid was dissolved, heated and titrated with a previously standardized NaOH solution to find the neutralization equivalent and ultimately, the molar mass of the unknown carboxylic acid. Introduction: This experiment focuses on the different properties of carboxylic acids. The experiment aims to compare the solubility of acetic acid and stearic acid in water and to describe the relationship between molecular weight and solubility of carboxylic acids in water. The experiment also intends to infer the relative acidities of carboxylic acids and phenols based on the relative differences of their reaction with NaHCO3 and explain how NaHCO3 can be used to separate a mixture containing a water-insoluble carboxylic acid and a water insoluble phenol. The experiment also aims to identify reducing acids and the functional groups responsible for their reduction potential. The experiment also intends to describe a physical property such as physical state, color, odor or solubility that can differentiate succinic acid and oxalic acid, acetic acid and lactic acid, acetic acid and formic acid, benzoic acid and stearic acid and acetic acid and butyric acid. And lastly, the experiment looks into th e determination of the neutralization equivalent and molar mass of an unknown mono- and dicarboxylic acid. Experimental Details: The following apparatus were used in the experiment: Vials Vial rack Micro spatula Dropper Test Tubes Test Tube Rack Weighing boat 50 mL Buret Iron stand Buret clamp Erlen Meyer flasks Funnel Corks Graduated Cylinder Bunsen burner Wire gauze Test tube brush Vial brush Safety goggles The following materials were used in the experiment: Distilled water Acetic acid Butyric acid Oleic acid Stearic acid Succinic acid Benzoic acid Formic acid Lactic acid Oxalic acid 10% NaHCO3 0.5% KMnO4 0.09413 M NaOH Bromthymol blue indicator unknown carboxylic acid (at least 0.2 g) The following procedures were carried out in the experiment: a. Solubility in Water. The solubility of carboxylic acids in water was tested by mixing water with the following acids: acetic, butyric, oleic, stearic, succinic and benzoic. Three drops of the liquid or one micro spatula of the solid acid were added to 2 mL of water. The qualitative results obtained with the solubilities listed for the compounds were checked in a chemical handbook. The data were tabulated. b. Reaction with 10% Sodium Bicarbonate. The solubility test of the same acids was repeated with 10% sodium bicarbonate solution. Three drops of the liquid or one micro spatula of the solid acid were added with 2 mL of 10% sodium bicarbonate solution. The evidence for reaction when water soluble acetic acid and succinic acid when added to reagent was noted. The typical pKa values of carboxylic acids, phenols, HCO3 and CO32- were compared. c. Action of an Oxidizing Agent on the Carboxylic Acid Group. Five drops of acetic acid were added to three to five drops of 0.5 KMnO4 in a vial. The test was repeated with the following acids: formic, lactic, oxalic and succinic. d. Neutralization Equivalent of Carboxylic Acids. A 0.2 g sample of unknown carboxylic acid was weighed accurately to four significant figures. The acid was dissolved in 50 mL water or ethanol. The mixture was heated to dissolve completely the compound. The solution was titrated with a previously standardized NaOH solution. A bromthymol blue indicator was used. The neutralization equivalent and molar mass of the unknown carboxylic acid were calculated. Results and Discussion: Carboxylic acids are organic compounds containing a carboxy group (COOH). The carbon atom of a carboxy group is surrounded by three groups, making it sp2 hybridized and trigonal planar, with bond angles of approximately 120Ã ¢-Â ¦. Figure 1: Carboxylic Acid structure Carboxylic acids exhibit dipole-dipole interactions because of their polar C-O bond and O-H bond. They also exhibit intermolecular hydrogen bonding because they possess a hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative oxygen atom. Carboxylic acids are one of the most polar organic compounds. Most carboxylic acids exist as cyclic dimmers, held together by two hydrogen bonds. Figure 2: Carboxylic acid dimer Acetic acid is soluble in water. Carboxylic acids with less than 5 carbons in their alkyl group are soluble in water. The carbon skeleton is not too large for the OH group to solubilize by hydrogen bonding. The hydrophilic nature of the carboxylic group dominates than the hydrophobic nature. This is the reason why acetic acid and butyric acid are soluble in water. Figure 3: Acetic acid and butyric acid On the other hand, oleic acid and stearic acid are insoluble in water. Both have long, bulky carbon chains exceeding the five carbon limit. The OH group cannot solubilize the carbon skeleton via hydrogen bonding. Its hydrophobic character dominates than its hydrophilic nature. Figure 4: Oleic acid Figure 5: Stearic acid A good solvent for stearic acid would be organic solvents like ether, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. Figure 6: Solvents for stearic acid Benzoic acid is insoluble in water because the benzene ring is too bulky and large, and because of its stability, the OH group cannot solubilize it using hydrogen bonding. Figure 7: Benzoic acid Succinic acid contains two COOH groups because it is a dicarboxylic acid. This tells us that there is an increase in the hydrogen bonding capacity which makes it slightly soluble only because the carbon chain exceeds the five carbon chain limit and its hydrophobic character also shows. Figure 8: Succinic acid Carboxylic acids readily react with Bronsted Lowry bases to form carboxylate ions which are done through deprotonation. Figure 9: Carboxylic acids react with sodium carbonate In the experiment, sodium bicarbonate was used to deprotonate the carboxylic acid. This was a simple neutralization reaction forming a carboxylate salt, carbon dioxide and water. Acetic acid, butyric acid, succinic acid and benzoic acid react with the sodium bicarbonate. Succinic acid undergoes two deprotonation steps because it contains two COOH groups. An acid can be deprotonated by a base that has a conjugate acid with a higher pKa. The pKa values of acetic acid, butyric acid, benzoic acid and succinic acid are all ~5, thus bases that have conjugate acids with pKa values higher than 5 are strong enough to deprotonate them. Oleic acid and stearic acid have pKa values of 9.85 and 10.15 respectively. These pKa values are higher than the conjugate acid of the base (NaOH) which is H2CO3. This tells us that sodium bicarbonate is not strong enough to deprotonate both carboxylic acids. Stronger bases are needed to deprotonate them such as NaOH which has a conjugate acid with a pKa of 15.7. Figure 10: Dissociation and pKa values of carboxylic acids When comparing the pKa values of carboxylic acids and phenols, phenols always have a higher pKa value which tells us that phenols are weaker acids than carboxylic acids. Figure 11: pKa values of phenol and carboxylic acid Carboxylic acids and phenols are both acidic. Looking into the Arrhenius definition of an acid, both when dissolved in water, increases the H+ concentration. Also looking at the Bronsted-Lowry definition of an acid, acids are proton donors. Figure 12: Bronsted Lowry definition of an acid Aside from these two famous definitions of an acid, we must also look into the stability of the conjugate base. A rule states that anything that stabilizes a conjugate base makes the starting reagent acidic. When we talk about phenols, its conjugate base which is the phenoxide is resonance stabilized. It has five resonance structures which disperse the negative charge to three carbons and one oxygen atom. This makes phenols more acidic than alcohols which cannot stabilize its conjugate base via resonance. When we compare phenols with carboxylic acids, carboxylic acids are stronger compared to phenols. For carboxylic acids, their conjugate base which is the carboxylate ion is a lot more stable because they contain two oxygen atoms that delocalize the negative charge. As an effect, carboxylic acids are stronger acids than phenols which is evident in their pKa values. Looking at the pKa values of phenols and carboxylic acids, we could conclude that NaHCO3 can be used to separate a water insoluble carboxylic acid and a water insoluble phenol considering that this insoluble carboxylic acid does not exceed the pKa value of HCO3 (when protonated H2CO3 which is the conjugate acid) which is 6.4. Sodium bicarbonate can successfully separate a water insoluble phenol and a water insoluble carboxylic acid because typical pKa values for phenol which is 10 exceeds 6.4. The NaHCO3, therefore, is not strong enough to deprotonate the phenol but is strong enough to deprotonate the carboxylic acid. It will most likely form two layers: an organic layer with the phenol and an aqueous layer with the water and carboxylate ion which are products of the reaction of the carboxylic acid with the base. Sodium carbonate is not effective in separating a mixture containing a water insoluble carboxylic acid and a water insoluble phenol. The pKa of CO32- (when protonated becomes HCO3) is close to 10. This tells us that Na2CO3 reacts with some of the phenol and ofcourse with the carboxylic acid. Thus, no complete separation between the two occurs. Figure 13: Sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate Some carboxylic acids undergo oxidation. These are called reducing acids. In the experiment, lactic acid, formic acid and oxalic acid are all oxidized to carbon dioxide and water with the presence of a brown precipitate which is the reduced KMnO4. Acetic acid and Succinic acid are both non-reducing acids because they do not oxidize in the presence of a strong oxidizing agent, KMnO4. Lactic acid is oxidized into pyruvic acid because it contains an oxidizable group which is OH. Figure 14: Oxidation of lactic acid Formic acid is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. Figure 15: Oxidation of formic acid Oxalic acid also oxidizes into carbon dioxide and water. Figure 16: Oxidation of oxalic acid The neutralization equivalent of an acid is mathematically defined as: Neutralization equivalent (NE) = To determine the molar mass: Molar mass = (X) x neutralization equivalent *Where X is the number of COOH groups The molar mass of an unknown carboxylic sample could be determined by computing its neutralization equivalent. Finding the neutralization equivalent requires titrating the solution of unknown carboxylic acid with a previously standardized solution of NaOH. The exact molarity of the NaOH was found to be 0.09413 M. Two trials were carried out in this section of the experiment. The solid form of the unknown carboxylic acid was water soluble. Weighing of sample: Titration: Computations: Trial 1: Volume of NaOH used = Final buret reading – Initial buret reading = 33.80 mL – 0.50 mL = 33.30 mL Neutralization equivalent (NE) = = = 66.36 g/mol Molar mass = 2 x (66.36 g/mol) = 132.72 g/mol Trial 2: Volume of NaOH used = Final buret reading – Initial buret reading = 32.50 mL -0.30 mL = 32.20 mL Neutralization equivalent (NE) = = = 66.35 mL Molar mass = 2 x (66.35 g/mol) = 132.70 g/mol Average molar mass = = 132.71 g/mol This molar mass was determined to be 95% near the true molar mass of the unknown carboxylic acid. Calculations for determining identity of unknown: = 139. 69 139.69 – 132.71 = 6.98 (error) For MM1 = 132.71 +6.98 = 139.69 MM2 = 132.71 – 6.98 = 125.73 For the 1st probable molar mass: 139.69 – 90.02 (2 X molar mass of COOH) = 49.67 CnH2n = 49.67 (12.01)n + (1.00)2n = 49.67 14.01 n = 49.67 n= 3.5/4 For the 2nd probable molar mass: 125.73 – 90.02 (2 X molar mass of COOH) = 35.71 CnH2n = 35.71 (12.01)n + (1.00)2n = 35.71 14.01n = 35.71 n= 2.5/3 Possible identities for the carboxylic acid include Glutaric acid, Glutaconic acid and Adipic acid. Conclusion: Therefore, the solubility of different carboxylic acids can be rationalized from the structure of the carboxylic acid itself. Acetic acid and butyric acid are soluble since their OH groups are able to solubilize their alkyl chain which does not exceed five carbons. Oleic acid and stearic acid are insoluble in water because their alkyl chain exceeds 5 carbons and the OH group cannot solubilize the long, bulky alkyl chain. A good solvent for stearic acid would be organic solvents like ether, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. Benzoic acid is insoluble in water because the benzene ring, due to its stability, cannot be solubilized by the OH group. Succinic acid on the other hand, is soluble in water due to greater capacity of hydrogen bonding because it has two OH groups. Carboxylic acids also react with sodium carbonate through deprotonation. Only acetic acid, succinic acid, benzoic acid and butyric acid give a reaction because these acids have a lower pKa value than the conjugate aci d of the base which is NaHCO3. Oleic acid and Stearic acid do not react with NaHCO3 because they have higher pKa values than the conjugate acid of the base. This tells us that sodium bicarbonate is not strong enough to deprotonate both carboxylic acids. The rule here is: an acid can be deprotonated by a base that has a conjugate acid with a higher pKa. By looking at the pKa values, phenols are weaker acids than carboxylic acids. Phenols are resonance stabilized by carboxylic acids is more stable because they have conjugate bases with two oxygen atoms which delocalize the negative charge. NaHCO3 can be used to separate a mixture containing a water insoluble carboxylic acid and a water insoluble phenol because phenols do not react with this because it has a higher pKa than its conjugate acid. Na2CO3 is not effective because both phenols and carboxylic acids react, therefore, no separation occurs. Some carboxylic acids react with KMnO4 and are oxidized. Examples are lactic acid which i s oxidized to pyruvic acid and formic acid and oxalic acids which are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. Non-reducing acids include acetic acid and succinic acid. And for the last part of the experiment, the molar mass of an unknown carboxylic acid may be determined by identifying how many COOH groups are present and by computing its neutralization equivalent. Neutralization equivalent (NE) = Molar mass = (X) x neutralization equivalent Supporting information: In determining the molar mass or formula for an unknown carboxylic acid, it may be possible to have an unsaturated compound. If the molecular formula is given, plug in the numbers into this formula: DoU= C= number of carbons N= number of nitrogens X= number of halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) H= number of hydrogens References: Organic Chemistry by John McMurry Organic Chemistry by Janice Smith http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Organic_Chemistry/Hydrocarbons/Alkenes/Properties_of_Alkenes/Degree_of_Unsaturation Wikiperdia.org www.studymode.com

Ancient Calendars Essays -- essays research papers

Time Keepers Celestial bodies - the sun, moon, planets, and stars - have provided us a reference for measuring the passage of time throughout human existence. Ancient civilizations like: China, India, Babylon, and Greece relied upon the apparent motion of these bodies through the sky to record and determine seasons, months, and years. We know little about the details of timekeeping in prehistoric eras. However, records and artifacts usually uncover that in every culture, people were preoccupied with measuring and recording the passage of time. Stonehenge, built over 4000 years ago in England has no written records, but its alignments show its purposes apparently included the determination of seasonal or celestial events, such as lunar eclipses, solstices and so on. As time has passed so has the evolution of the calendar, a device created to track our time and seasons from the earliest recordings in Babylonia to the Gregorian calendar the history of this transformation is and interesting journey. The earliest know calendar to keep track of the cycles of the celestial bodies was an Egyptian calendar that was based on the moon's cycles and is thought to have been created in 4236 B.C.E. Many cultures and societies have embraced the idea of tracking time and seasons as they pass for a myriad of reasons, â€Å"Seafarers needed to navigate their vessels, and farmers had to know when to plant their crops.† (Chaisson / McMillan p.30) The Chinese are credited with having invented the second oldest method of time keeping; Emperor Huangdi implemented the Chinese legend in 2637 B.C.E.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Babylonia (where modern day Iraq can be found) is attributed with having some of the earliest surviving records of astronomical observations. It is believed, ‘†¦Babylonian astronomical knowledge spread far and wide – to the East, to Persia, and to the Mediterranean.† (Richards p. 38) However, the knowledge that was disbursed was not treasured by all that received it, in the Mediterranean the Greeks improved upon the theories of the Babylonians. The Greek’s theories were recorded; however, when Rome over-took most of Europe the records fell into the hands of the Christian church. When Constantine was Emperor of Rome he declared Christianity to be the official religion of the empire; thus, giving the church officials the power to decide the validity of the recordin... ...ius (1537-1612), he signed a papal bull and that was followed by, â€Å"The actual change over to the new calendar took place the following year on 4 October. After 350 years or more the reform had at last been accomplished.† (Richards p.246) Furthermore the rule for leap years (which said that years divisible with 4 should be leap years) was changed so that years, at the end of the century, should be leap years only if they were divisible with 400 (e.g. 1600, 2000, 2400 etc.) In the Gregorian Calendar there is then 303 years with 365 days and 97 years with 366 days, which gives a mean year of 365.24250 days: 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12 seconds. Related to the mean interval between vernal equinoxes this corresponds to a slippage of less than one hour in every 300 years for the foreseeable future - until circa 4000 AD. Chaisson, Eric and Steve McMillan. Astronomy Today. New Jersey: Prentice   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hall, 1999. Evenson, A.E. About the History of the Calendar. Canada: Regensteiner   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Publishing, 1972. Richards, E. G. Mapping Time, The Calendar and its History. New York: Oxford   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  University Press, 1998. Ancient Calendars Essays -- essays research papers Time Keepers Celestial bodies - the sun, moon, planets, and stars - have provided us a reference for measuring the passage of time throughout human existence. Ancient civilizations like: China, India, Babylon, and Greece relied upon the apparent motion of these bodies through the sky to record and determine seasons, months, and years. We know little about the details of timekeeping in prehistoric eras. However, records and artifacts usually uncover that in every culture, people were preoccupied with measuring and recording the passage of time. Stonehenge, built over 4000 years ago in England has no written records, but its alignments show its purposes apparently included the determination of seasonal or celestial events, such as lunar eclipses, solstices and so on. As time has passed so has the evolution of the calendar, a device created to track our time and seasons from the earliest recordings in Babylonia to the Gregorian calendar the history of this transformation is and interesting journey. The earliest know calendar to keep track of the cycles of the celestial bodies was an Egyptian calendar that was based on the moon's cycles and is thought to have been created in 4236 B.C.E. Many cultures and societies have embraced the idea of tracking time and seasons as they pass for a myriad of reasons, â€Å"Seafarers needed to navigate their vessels, and farmers had to know when to plant their crops.† (Chaisson / McMillan p.30) The Chinese are credited with having invented the second oldest method of time keeping; Emperor Huangdi implemented the Chinese legend in 2637 B.C.E.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Babylonia (where modern day Iraq can be found) is attributed with having some of the earliest surviving records of astronomical observations. It is believed, ‘†¦Babylonian astronomical knowledge spread far and wide – to the East, to Persia, and to the Mediterranean.† (Richards p. 38) However, the knowledge that was disbursed was not treasured by all that received it, in the Mediterranean the Greeks improved upon the theories of the Babylonians. The Greek’s theories were recorded; however, when Rome over-took most of Europe the records fell into the hands of the Christian church. When Constantine was Emperor of Rome he declared Christianity to be the official religion of the empire; thus, giving the church officials the power to decide the validity of the recordin... ...ius (1537-1612), he signed a papal bull and that was followed by, â€Å"The actual change over to the new calendar took place the following year on 4 October. After 350 years or more the reform had at last been accomplished.† (Richards p.246) Furthermore the rule for leap years (which said that years divisible with 4 should be leap years) was changed so that years, at the end of the century, should be leap years only if they were divisible with 400 (e.g. 1600, 2000, 2400 etc.) In the Gregorian Calendar there is then 303 years with 365 days and 97 years with 366 days, which gives a mean year of 365.24250 days: 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12 seconds. Related to the mean interval between vernal equinoxes this corresponds to a slippage of less than one hour in every 300 years for the foreseeable future - until circa 4000 AD. Chaisson, Eric and Steve McMillan. Astronomy Today. New Jersey: Prentice   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hall, 1999. Evenson, A.E. About the History of the Calendar. Canada: Regensteiner   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Publishing, 1972. Richards, E. G. Mapping Time, The Calendar and its History. New York: Oxford   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  University Press, 1998.

What Are the Psychological Explanations for Why People Commit Terrorist Acts and Up to What Extent Do They Explain These People’s Behaviour.

What are the psychological explanations for why people commit terrorist acts and up to what extent do they explain these people’s behaviour. Miller (2006) states that the word terrorism derives from the Latin word terrere which means to frighten. Merari and Friedman (see Victoroff 2005, p. 3) claim that terrorism existed even before recorded history. This is echoed by Miller’s (2006) claim that terrorism is as old as civilization and has existed since people discovered that they could influence the majority by targeting a few people. Schmid (see Victoroff 2005 p. ) has collected 109 definitions of terrorism and this suggests that it is a very broad topic and extremely hard to define. Two examples of relatively recent acts of terrorism are the Oklahoma City bombings in 1995 and the terrorist attacks upon the United States in 2001. This essay examines some of the psychological explanations as to why people commit such acts of terror and attempts to integrate some of these explanations in order to achieve a greater understanding. One possible explanation of why people commit terrorist acts can be seen in the pathological theory of terrorism. Bongar at el. (2007) claim that it is a common suggestion that terrorists must be insane or psychopathologcal; this is the basis of the psychopathological theory of terrorism. However Rasch (see Victoroff 2005 p. 12) looked at 11 terrorist suspects and also looked at a Federal Police study of 40 people wanted as terrorists and found nothing to suggest that any of them were mentally ill. Bongar et al (2007) observed that interviews with terrorists hardly ever find any disorder listed in the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. This is supported by the work of the criminologist Franco Ferracuti (1982) who said that although terrorist groups are sometimes led by insane individuals, and a few terrorist acts maybe committed by insane individuals, ,most people who commit terrorist acts hardly ever meet psychiatric criteria for insanity. Victoroff (2005) makes the point that very little research supporting the psychopathological model uses comprehensive psychiatric examination. Whilst the psychopathological model may explain the behaviour of a few people who commit terrorist acts it does not explain the behaviour of most people who commit terrorist acts. Psychoanalysis is based on the idea that we are largely driven by unconscious motives and impulses (Victoroff 2005; Borum 2004). It has been used to try and explain the behaviour of people who commit terrorist acts and has many variants but two notions seem to underpin all of them; the first is that people who commit terrorist acts are motivated by a hostility towards their parents and that these motives are mainly unconscious, the second is that terrorism is the result of cruelty and maltreatment in childhood (Borum 2004). A theory which uses the psychoanalytical approach is the Narcissism theory. John Crayton and Richard Pearlstein (see Victoroff 2005, p. 23) have used Kohut’s self psychology to explain the process that drives young people to commit terrorist acts. Heniz Kohut’s (see Victoroff 2005, p. 23) concept of self psychology is a variation of Freud’s ego psychology. Kohut (see Victoroff 2005, p. 23) claims that infants have certain needs which need to be met in order for their caring responses to develop normally and that if they do not receive maternal empathy it damages their self image. Kohut (see Victoroff 2005, p. 23) called this damage narcissistic injury and said that it prevents the development of adult morality and identity. In his work Crayton (see Victoroff 2005. p. 23) suggests that political experience such as humiliation of subordination might rekindle narcissistic injury caused in childhood in adults. He suggested that this may result in an exalted sense of self or the rejection of one’s individual identity in order to unite with someone or something which represents omnipotence (see Victoroff 2005, p. 23; Borum 2004, p. 19). Crayton suggested (see Victoroff 2005, p. 23) that an exaltation of self is the origin for leaders of terrorist groups/activities and that the rejection of one’s individual identity is the origin of the followers of such leaders. Akhtar (see Borum 2004 p. 19) based his work on the Narcissism theory and claimed that people who commit terrorist acts are deeply traumatised as children, and often suffer abuse and humiliation. According to Akhtar (see Borum 2004, p. 19) this leaves them feeling an enormous amount of fear and vulnerability. Crayton (see Victoroff 2005 p. 3) claims that this fear and vulnerability become intolerable to the extent that it is expressed through narcissistic rage; narcissistic rage is actually rage against the damaged self but is projected onto other targets as if they were the reason for the intolerable feelings. The work of both Hubbard and el Surraj (see Victoroff 2005 p. 24) supports the narcissistic theory; they found that terrorists are usually not aggressive psychopaths but are often timid, emotionally damaged young people who might have suffered parental rejection and therefore not developed their own adult identities fully. They are often looking for meaning and relationships. The narcissism theory tries to explain why people commit terrorist acts in terms of an identity deficit/narcissistic injury which is expressed through narcissistic rage. Pearlstein (see Borum 2004 p. 19) identifies the narcissism theory as the most comprehensive theory of the individual logic of those who commit terrorist acts. However Victoroff (2005) claims that although the ideas within the narcissism theory are plausible there is very little scientific evidence supporting the theory. Bandura’s social learning theory suggests that violence occurs through observation and imitation of behaviour (see Victoroff 2005, p. 18). Whether or not aggressive behaviour is imitated depends on what consequences of the behaviour are observed when other people carry out the behaviour (see Borum 2004, p. 13). Learning through observation of other peoples’ actions and through the consequences of their actions is called vicarious learning (see Borum 2004, p. 13). Oots and Wiegele (1985) make the point that if aggression can be viewed as a learned behaviour, then terrorism, which is a type of aggressive behaviour, can also be viewed as a learned behaviour. Victoroff (2005) gives an example of how the social learning theory might explain the behaviour of people who commit terrorist acts; he says that adolescents who live in areas of political conflict may witness terrorist behaviours and seek to imitate them or that they may see the way that people in their culture react to such terrorist behaviours and learn through these. The latter is an example of vicarious learning; if certain behaviours get a positive reaction then people are more likely to imitate them. Crenshaw (see Victoroff 2005, p. 18) gives the example of the martyr posters which are displayed in the Shi’a regions of Lebanon and Palestinian refugee camps; this example illustrates how vicarious learning might explain the behaviour of people who commit terrorist acts. Positive reactions to terrorist behaviours from the people of a culture may influence others in that culture to commit terrorist acts. The social learning theory fails to explain why only a minority of people who witness terrorist behaviours and see these behaviours being glorified by their culture become people who commit terrorist acts (Victoroff, 2005). The behaviours of people who commit terrorist acts can be explained to a certain extent by the pathological model, the narcissism model and the social learning theory. The pathological model explains their behaviour in terms of psychopathology, the narcissism model explains their behaviour in terms of narcissistic injury and an exaltation of self or rejection of individual identity, the social learning theory explains their behaviour in terms of observation, imitation and vicarious learning. None of the models fully succeed in explaining why only a minority of people who suffer from psychopathology, narcissistic personality traits or live in areas of political conflict become people who commit terrorist acts. The pathological model, the narcissism model, and the social learning theory may provide a better explanation of why people commit terrorist acts if they are combined; For example if someone is pathologically insane, has had a distressful childhood and is also surrounded by political conflict, it seems more likely that they may commit terrorists acts. On the other hand if someone is pathologically insane, has had a relatively stable childhood, and isn’t surrounded by political conflict, it seems less likely that they may commit terrorist acts. The three explanations for the behaviour of people who commit terrorist acts, which are discussed in this essay are not the only psychological explanations available. There are also cognitive and biological explanations for such behaviour which if integrated with the three explanations discussed in this essay would provide an even greater understanding of why people commit terrorist acts. References Bongar, B. M. , et al. , 2007. 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